There have been attempts made by the Mandailing ethnic community to achieve recognition for their perceived distinct ethnicity. 7. In a somewhat contradictory manner, states must first have a firm grip on the levers of sovereignty before they can loosen their hold (Narine 2004). In addition, his evidence for the existence of a collective identity remains focused on functional aspects, namely, member states adherence to ASEAN norms such as the principle of non-interference and absolute respect for national sovereignty (Acharya 2005). It will follow McMillan and Chaviss definition of a sense of community as a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members needs will be met through their commitment to be together and Henri Tajfels definition of identity as part of an individuals self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership (McMillan and Chavis 1986; Tajfel 1981). As this article has shown, this need for ASEAN to re-define itself emanates from the political elites of ASEAN themselves. For instance, in the settlement of the 17th century Vietnamese-Laotian war, the Le emperor of Vietnam and the king of Laos came to an ceasefire agreement that dictated every settler in the upper Mekong who lived in a house built on stilts as owing their fealty to Laos, while those whose house had earthen floors owing their fealty to Vietnam (Steinberg 1971). Stephen Dziedzic. Modern Colonization in Asia and its Effects. The political elites of ASEAN also continue to look at their neighbouring countries with much suspicion (ibid.). The persistence of exclusivity in national identity also forms a mental barrier in the creation of a genuine ASEAN community and collective identity. Kim, Min-hyung. These measures were implemented to create an efficient system for maximum economic exploitation but also manipulated to legitimize colonialism as a civilizing mission that sought to better the lives of its colonised subjects. Here we may consider the story of Hang Tuah who did not see any contradictions with introducing himself as both a subject-servant of the Sultan of Melaka and an emissary of Raja Keling of Kalinga at the same time (Ahmad 1965). Proof of Thailand's tourist-industry claim to be the most exotic country in Asia. Thus, the history of a single nation-state in Southeast Asia cannot be explained without invariably tying it up to the histories of other nation-states in the region. Introduction. He proposed to view ASEAN as a pluralistic security community (PSC) that has allowed for the management of conflict in the region without the use of force through a process of elite socialization of shared ASEAN norms (Acharya 2005). He is the author of The Manchurian Myth: Nationalism, Resistance and Collaboration in Modern China (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000); A Bitter Revolution: China's Struggle with the Modern World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), for which he was named Times Higher Education . A genuine shared ASEAN community and collective ASEAN identity is defined in this article as a state of mind and emotions of both political elites and individual citizens in relating to their fellow counterparts both rationally and emotionally that results in them taking into account the common regional good and caring for the well-being of their fellow citizens. (Jones and Smith 2002). France took direct control over the provinces of Indochina--Annam, Tonkin, and Cochinchina (which . There was a clear absence of any rigid form of political and ethnic loyalties in the pre-colonial world of Southeast Asia. Indeed, colonial domination was only a variant condition in a rapidly changing world. Rahim, Lily Zubaidah. These negative effects are caused by over-exploitation, oppression, discrimination, enslavement, policy imposition, and capitalism (Dvila & La-Montes, 2001). 1 (April 2012): 1-53. For instance, racialised colonial capitalismwas implemented across the colonies in which a racialized hierarchy was introduced that stratified ethnic communities into their respective social and economic roles (Noor 2106). _____________. Economic Impact. Thirdly, the management of intra-regional relations continues to pose a challenge to the cohesiveness of ASEAN. In the 1930s, however, a series of anticolonial revolts took place in Burma, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Besides the Europeans, Japanese and the Americans used to colonize Southeast Asian countries as well. Trauma and History: Accepting Complexity in the Past and the Present. In Trauma, Memory and Transformation: Southeast Asian Experiences, edited by Sharon A. Bong. Oceana, and Asia (Western Society, 2004). Title. On the contrary, ordinary citizens at the grass-root level do not have their hands tied in the same manner. Integration into the global economy. Thus, their networking should be promoted and governments should leverage on their experiences to develop social spaces that promote greater people-to-people interaction and cultural exchanges. Pre-colonial historical, cultural and social linkages that had existed prior to colonial rule were eventually replaced by a neater range of political allegiance in Southeast Asia. These dialectics have assisted the regions political elite in their repeated attempts at playing up national sentiments against neighbouring countries in order to galvanize its populace for political gains. National histories have to shift away from a mono-logical retelling of events to one that teaches it in the broader context of the region that reminds the people of ASEAN of the numerous, intersecting historical and cultural ties that exists amongst them. negative effects of colonialism in southeast asia. Initially founded by the five member-states of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand on 8 August 1967, it has since expanded to include Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia and now encompasses 10 countries of differing ethnicities, political systems, cultures . Lee Jun Jie is a humanities educator in Singapore and a postgraduate alumni of the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University. Moorthy, Ravichandran and Guido Benny. Moreover, it is unfair to say that ASEAN has no cultural and geographical foundation for the creation of a shared community and collective identity. Singapore: S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2007. Unrestricted by any form of political borders or allegiance to a single locality, Southeast Asians constantly moved across the region. 5 (May 2011): 762. Colonial rule was to replace the pre-existing indigenous worldviews and cosmology by introducing to an another-wise borderless, multi-faceted and fluid world of Southeast Asia, the divisive language game of national sovereignty, racial categories and exclusive identity. ASEAN is ultimately made up of ten diverse countries with very different political system, geography, culture, religion, economy and vulnerabilities (Roberts 2011). The most important reasons for the change were a growing Western technological superiority, an increasingly powerful European mercantile community in Southeast Asia, and a competitive scramble for strategic territory. Unintentionally, of course. Some of the negative impacts that are associated with colonization include; degradation of natural resources, capitalist, urbanization, introduction of foreign diseases to livestock and humans. The Thai may have colonized themselves, as some critics have noted, but in so doing they also escaped or diluted some of the more corrosive characteristics of Western rule, among them racism and cultural destruction. Thuzar, Moe. Biba, Sebastian. The great political and social structures of the classical states had begun to decay, and, although the reasons for this disintegration are not altogether clear, the expanded size of the states, the greater complexity of their societies, and the . Although France sought an extensive colonial empire in Asia, its defeat in the Napoleonic Wars left it with just a handful of Asian territories. Despite these efforts, ASEAN has thus far failed to develop a degree of ASEAN consciousness in both its bureaucrats and citizens that will nudge them to think of themselves as a member of the wider ASEAN body (Denoon and Colbert 1998-1999). Southeast Asia's New Nationalism: Causes and Significance - Volume 1 Issue 2. . Khoo, How San. The United States destroyed the Spanish fleet stationed in the Philippines, and encouraged rebel leaders there to declare independence. Not necessarily so. A native of the Mandailing community living in Sumatra should be able to identify himself/herself as an ethnic Mandailing, an Indonesian and a contributing ASEAN member all at once. 3 (September 2013): 399-423. ASEAN can be argued to be more of a community of convenience that acts as a functional tool for political elites rather than a genuine community of shared vision and collective identity. The fact that the principle of non-interference is upheld as the working principle of ASEAN since its founding is an indication of such a mindset. One example is how Singapores national identity is attached to the idea of exceptionalism that portrays the country as an economically advanced, meritocratic, multi-ethnic state as opposed to the constitutive other of economically backward, corrupted, communal states in the region. has thus far remain unpromising and has yet to move beyond being mere political slogans. On the contrary, ordinary citizens at the grass-root level do not have their hands tied in the same manner. A Collection of Statutes Relating to the East India Company. Central Intelligence Agency. Malaysian politicians and media often play up bilateral disputes by criticising Singapore or accuse the country of spying within Malaysian territory. 8 Therefore, Allan Collins is most probably right in arguing that ASEAN exists as a security regime whereby states interact through norms of behavior primarily to achieve their political and economic goals (Collins 2007). However, as studies have shown, most people living in Southeast Asia remain largely unaware or remain ambivalent of the ASEAN community building initiative and would not identify themselves as a member of the ASEAN Community (Moorthy and Benny 2013; Thuzar 2015). An otherwise borderless Southeast Asia was thus separated into clearly delineated homogenous political entities which not only masked the numerous internal differences and diversity that runs deep beneath its surface but also cut off most of the pre-colonial cultural and social linkages that had existed prior between communities that now belonged to their respective colonies, slowly erasing them from the memory of its inhabitants (Kingsbury 2011). The formal and informal networks formed by these organizations have shown to ignore the language game of exclusivity and instead cooperated for decades on regional issues (Tadem 2018). Europeans created more realistic and distinct boundaries between Southeast Asia territories that were ruled by sultans and kings. Christopher B. Roberts, The ASEAN Community: Trusting Thy Neighbour?,, Mandailing is an ethnic group living in North Sumatra, Indonesia that is often incorrectly categorized with other ethnic groups as Batak. Political Community and the North Atlantic Area: International Organization in the Light of Historical Experience. Economic stagnation. Nor were the changes ineffectual, for by 1820 the large mainland states stood at the height of their powers. All this deteriorated the mental as well as physical freedom and conditions of the colonized . ASEAN centrality in these key regional platforms has afforded it with a voice at the global level (Vejjajiva 2017: 89-102). It was only after colonial rule that Southeast Asians inherited a sense of modern citizenship with their identity being fixed to a single sovereignty within well-defined territories (Steinberg 1971). South East Asia Research, 18(1), 5-31. 4 (December 2015), 421-440. The colonial rulers proceeded to alter the epistemology and discourse of statecraft and international relations in Southeast Asia. 2 (May 2015): 259-280. _____________. The Integration Theorists and the Study of International Relations. In The Global Agenda: Issues and Perspectives, edited by C.W. Within the colonies themselves, the colonial rulers also imported their Social Darwinism beliefs and instituted a series of divisive policies and social structures which developed an othering mindset among its colonial subjects. As the European colonizers were anxious to safeguard their economic interest and avoid any possible territorial conflicts with their counterparts, they saw a need to demarcate well-defined political boundaries to minimize any ambiguity over the extent of their rule. Colonization also led to deforestation and the overgrazing of lands. S. Rajaratnam School of InternationalStudies, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 22 February 2012. ASEANs imitation community. Orbis: A Journal of World Affairs 46, no. When the outbreak of war in Europe and the Pacific showed that the colonial powers were much weaker militarily than had been imagined, destroying colonial rule and harnessing the power of the masses seemed for the first time to be real possibilities. Association of Southeast Asian Nation. As decades of imposed isolation occur between the colonial states, the social and economic life of its inhabitants became further and further separated from their regional counterparts even though they were in close geographical proximity. Mcintyre, Angus. ASEAN has also gone on to achieve some success in regional economic integration projects with a number of agreements signed in principle on the setting up of free trade zones, abolishment of tariffs, product standards and conformity (Severino 2007: 17-24). Hund, Markys. More peaceful Western encroachments on local sovereignty also occurred until the 1920s. As a result of these divisive colonial policies, ethnic identities and differences were artificially accentuated which created an outlook of dichotomized, binary identities anchored by an othering mindset of Native vs. Aliens and Race vs. Race (Hirschman 1995). Hooghe, Liesbet and Gary Marks. The Critical Importance of Socio-cultural Community for the Future of ASEAN. In ASEAN @ 50 Volume 1, The ASEAN Journey: Reflections of ASEAN Leaders and Officials, edited by Surin Pitsuwan, Hidetoshi Nishimura, Ponciano Intal, Jr., Kavi Chongkittavorn, and Larry Maramis, 89-102. Their primary concerns were extending bureaucratic control and creating the conditions for success in a capitalist world economy; the chief necessity was stability or, as the Dutch called it, rust en orde (tranquility and order). The demarcation of well-defined political boundaries by the colonial powers effectively divided Southeast Asia into neat blocks of compartmentalized colonies. By August 1945 they stood poised to inherit (or, given the variety of political conditions at the end of the war, to struggle among themselves over inheriting) the mantle of leadership over their own countries. Murti, Gita. In the economic sphere impact also the western imperialism had a mixed impact. However, these works stopped short of explaining the origin of their fixation on the Westphalian principles of state sovereignty and their national boundaries. This chapter surveys the literature on whether and which are the long-run economic legacies of European colonization today. For example, the legacy of US colonialism and neocolonialism is very much . While these measures contributed to a greater sense of commonality and collective identity within the colonial states and allow its inhabitants to imagine themselves as part of an imagined community, they were confined within the boundaries drawn-up by their colonial masters. 9 For such a venture, it may be instructive to learn from the mental maps of the indigenous communities such as the Bajao of the Sulu Seas or the Dayaks of Borneo who have stubbornly insisted on the rejection of fixed political geography or exclusive national identities as imposed by distant power centers. Some, like the Tonkin Free School in Vietnam (1907), were closed by the colonial regimes, their staffs and pupils hounded by police; others, like the many so-called wild schools in Indonesia in the 1930s, were much too numerous to do away with altogether, but they were controlled as carefully as possible. Region and Identity: The Many Faces of Southeast Asia. Asian Politics & Policy 3, no. 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